I am fully convinced that, in the first in- matical sentences-and by pointing out the inaccuracies which occur in their written compositions,-than by all the formal rules that can be packed into their memories. All the instructions alluded to above may be imparted without the assistance of any book or manual of grammar, and that, too, almost in the way of amusement. When the pupil has arrived at the age of 13 or 14 years, such books as "Murray's English Grammar," and "Irvine's Elements of English Composition," may be put into his hands for private perusal, where he will meet with a number of minute remarks and observations on the subject, which may be worthy of his attention. But, at the same time, he may be given to understand, that the careful study of good authors, a clear conception of the subject to which his attention is directed, and the exercise of judgment, taste, and common sense, on every piece of composition, will be of more avail than any system of abstract rules; and that a breach of some of the rules laid down by grammarians may sometimes be as proper as a strict observance of them. In short, in training children to accuracy, both in grammar and orthoepy, it might have a good effect were care uniformly taken, both in the school and the parlour, to correct every expression in their ordinary conversation that is ungram matical, or incorrect in their pronunciationto explain the reasons of the corrections, and to endeavour, on all occasions, to induce them to express their thoughts with propriety and precision. In the schools in Scotland every child should be taught to pronounce the Eng lish language with accuracy, even in his common conversation, so that the Scottish language may be extirpated as soon as possi ble, since it will never again be the language of literature or science. stance, it is quite unnecessary to advert to more than three or four fundamental rules in syntax, in order to direct the young in the general construction of sentences. There is one principal rule, which, if punctually observed, would prevent any egregious blunder from being committed either in speaking or writing, and that is, "A verb should agree with its nominative in number and person." This might be called, with some propriety, the Rule of syntax-a rule which is short and simple, which can be easily explained and comprehended, on the observation of which the meaning of a sentence frequently depends, and a rule, in short, which is most frequently violated, even by good writers, especially when their sentences are long and complex. To this rule I would add the following "Active verbs and prepositions govern the objective case of pronouns;" and, in order to prevent such inaccurate expressions as "more better," "more dearer," &c., the rule, "Double comparatives and superlatives are improper," may be added. Exercises might also be given to illustrate the two following rules-"The past participle should be used after the verbs have and be," and "The verb to be, should have the same case after it as before it." It ought never to be forgotten, that the habit of accurate composition depends more on practice, and the study of good writers, than on a multitude of rules; and I appeal to every one who is in the habit of composing, whether, in the moment of committing his thoughts to writing, he ever thinks of the rules of syntax, except, perhaps, some of those now specified. I have known an individual, in the lower walks of life, who had never been taught grammar, nor perused any book on the subject-who wrote essays on physical subjects, which might have been inserted with propriety (and some of them were actually inserted) in respectable scientific journals. The only inaccuracy which Geography is a branch of knowledge with appeared was an occasional violation of the which every individual of the human race first rule of syntax above stated. A more ought to be, in some measure, acquainted. It correct idea of the construction of sentences is scarcely consistent with the character of a will be conveyed to the young by the occa- rational being, surrounded by the immensity sional remarks of a judicious teacher, during of the works of God, to feel no desire to their reading lessons-by exercising them fre- become acquainted with these works, and, quently on the rules above stated, particularly particularly, to remain in ignorance of the the first-in causing them to correct ungram- form, magnitude, component parts, and gene occupy nearly a page. He immediately adds, "Whatever it is desirable young people should know they must learn by rote the memory is the only faculty of children of which teachers can properly avail themselves, and it is a vain attempt to address their immature powers of reason and reflection." Such sentiments are rather too anti SECTION VI-Geography. ral arrangements of the terrestrial habitation allotted for his abode. It is equally incon sistent with a principle of benevolence, and with the relations in which he stands to beings of the same nature and destination, to remain altogether unacquainted with the physical and moral condition of other tribes of his fellowtheir miseries or promoting their improvement. It is even inconsistent with the spirit of reli quated for the nineteenth century. This gente man, whether his name be real or fictitious, has succeeded much better in the execution of his men, and to feel no interest in alleviating Class-Book," and his "Grammar of Natural Philosophy," than in his "Practical Grammar of the English Language." FIGURE OF THE EARTH. gion and the duties of a Christian, to remain in indifference with regard to geographical knowledge, for "the field" of Christian labour and benevolence is "the world" with its numerous tribes of inhabitants, which it is the great object of this science to investigate and describe. As the depositories of Revelation, of "the good things of great joy," which are intended to be communicated "to all people," we are bound to study this subject in all its bearings and relations, and to teach it to our children, and our children's children, that they may feel an interest in the moral condition of the inhabitants of distant lands, and employ their energies in diffusing Divine knowledge, in counteracting moral evils, in abolishing the system of warfare, and preparing the way for a harmonious intercourse among all the families of the earth. This science, therefore, ought to form a subject of study in every seminary devoted to the instruction of the young. Yet it is a fact, that, in the present state of society, we find thousands of our fellow-men almost as ignorant as the horse or the mule, of the arrangements of the world in which they dwell, and of the various tribes of human beings with which it is peopled-as if they had no connection with their brethren of the same family, nor any common relation to the Universal Parent who gave them existence. This study, like many other scholastic exercises, has too frequently been conducted in a dry and uninteresting manner, and very inadequate ideas communicated of its grand features and leading objects. Lists of the names of towns, cities, countries, rivers, bays, and gulfs, have been imposed as tasks to the memory, without any corresponding ideas; and the mechanical exercises of copying maps, and twirling an artificial globe, have not unfrequently been substituted for clear and comprehensive views of the leading facts and principles of the science. Physical geography has been almost entirely omitted in the initiatory books on this subject; and most of them are constructed on this principle, that the meagre descriptions and details they contain shall be commi ted to memory by role. In this way, months and even years have been spent, and as little real knowledge of geography ac 99 pils that "the earth is round like a ball," the reusons or arguments which prove this position should be clearly and familiarly illustrated. If they are near the sea-coast, they should be conducted to the margin of the sea, to observe how the hull of a ship, leaving the shore, disappears, near the horizon, before the sails, and the sails before the topmast; and a telescope should be provided, that the observation may be made with perfect distinctness. They may be informed, at the same time, that a ship disappears from the view, in the same manner, in all parts of the ocean; and if so, the ocean must form a part of the surface of a sphere; and if the ocean, with its numerous ramifications of seas, straits, and gulfs, be of a spherical form, the surface of the land must be nearly of the same figure, since it is nearly on the same level as the sea, no part of it rising more than a mile or two above this level, except the peaks of a few lofty mountains. Where there is no convenient access to the sea-coast, or the margin of a lake or river, the same fact may be illustrated by the appearance of a person going over the top of a conical hill, -or any waving tract of ground may be selected, and a little boy directed to walk from the one extremity to the other, over the highest point of it; when it will be perceived, after having passed this point, that the lower parts of his body will first disappear, and that the top of his head will be the last part of him that will be visible, as represented in the following figure. The pupils may next be made to perceive, that if the earth be round like a globe, we might travel directly east or west, and, holding on in the same direction, without turning back, might arrive at the same point from which we set out; and then be informed, that the experiment has actually been made-that ships, at different periods, have sailed quite round the world, the course of which may afterwards be pointed out on the artificial globe. But, as these voyages have been made only in an easterly or westerly direc quired, as there is of theology by the common tion, they may be led to understand that, had routine of committing to memory the vocables we no other proofs of the earth's rotundity, of the "Church Catechism," or the West- this experiment would only prove that the minster Assembly's synopsis of Divinity. earth is round in one direction, like a cylinder In communicating a knowledge of geogra- or a drum. The roundness of the earth, from phy, it is requisite, in the first place, to give the young a clear and impressive idea of the size, form, component parts, and general arrangements of the earth, considered simply as an object of contemplation, and a part of the creation of God. In stating to a class of pu north to south, might, at the same time, be explained from the fact, that when we travel a considerable distance from N. to S. or from S. to N., a number of new stars successively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to which we are advancing, while many of those in the opposite quarter gradually disappear; which deduced from this phenomenon. Let the could not happen if the earth were a plane in flame of a candle or gas-lamp represent the that direction, like the longitudinal surface of sun, and a wooden ball, supported by a wire a cylinder: for, in this case, we should see all represent the earth; and let a circle, somethe stars of the heavens, from the North pole what less than the diameter of the ball, be to the South, on whatever portion of the drawn on a piece of pasteboard, and coloured, cylindrical surface we were supposed to be to represent the moon. Let them be placed placed. This might be illustrated by sur- at a moderate distance from each other, and rounding a terrestrial globe, or any other ball, nearly in a straight line, and let the pupils with a large hoop or circle, about twice or mark the curve of the shadow of the ball on thrice the diameter of the globe, on which some of the stars might be represented. This circle might be made either of wood or pasteboard, and the globe within it connected with a moveable plane to represent the horizon, as exhibited in the following figure. the circle representing the moon, and that there is no body but one of the figure of a globe that can project a circular shadow in every direction: for, although a counter or a shilling will cast a circular shadow in one direction, yet in every other direction it is either an oval or a straight line. Hence the conclusion is easily deduced, that, if the shadow of the earth falling on the moon is the cause of an eclipse of that orb, and if this shadow, so far as it is seen, is always a por tion of a circle, the earth, as a whole, must be nearly of a globular figure. In order to render such explanations clear and impressive-when a visible eclipse of the moon takes place, young persons should be directed to observe such a pnenomenon with attention to mark the figure of the earth's shadow when it first enters on the eastern margin of the moonbefore it leaves its western edge-and during the whole of its progress along the disk, if it happen to be a partial eclipse of the moon; and, although they be not directly engaged in geographical studies at the time, yet such observations will afterwards prepare them for understanding such explanations as now sug gested. Such minute illustrations, so far from being superfluous or unnecessary, are essen tially requisite for producing in the minds of In this figure, the inner circle represents the earth; A, the North pole, and B, the South; and the larger circle, E CFD, a portion of the celestial sphere. It is evident, that if a person be placed at the equator at G, he will see all the stars above the horizon C D, in the hemisphere DFC. If he move to the point H, 45 degrees nearer to the North pole, the moveable plane C D, may be moved the young, a rational conviction of the rotun• in the direction E F, to represent the horizon dity of the earth. I have known young ladies, of that place, when it will evidently appear and gentlemen too, who had passed through a that he has now lost sight of all the stars situated between F and D, and that the polestar C, which, in his former position, was in his horizon, is now elevated 45 degrees above it. In a similar manner it might be shown that no such difference in the aspect of the starry heavens could take place, in travelling from South to North, or from North to South, were the earth of the form of a cylinder; and consequently, that the fact above stated proves the rotundity of the earth in that direction. That the earth, considered as a whole, not withstanding the irregularities caused by its mountains and vales, is of the figure of a sphere, may be illustrated from the phenome non exhibited during the progress of an eclipse of the moon. An explanation of a lunar eclipse, accompanied with familiar illustrations, will be requisite to be given, before the proof of the globular figure of the earth be scholastic course of geography, and yet could assign no other reason for their believing that the earth is globular, than this, "That their teacher told them so, and showed them a representation of it by the artificial globe." Besides, such specific explanations and illus trations tend to exercise the reasoning powers of the young, and to bring to their view a variety of incidental facts and circumstances connected with the subject, and thus their store of general information is gradually increased. Having, by such methods as the above, produced a clear conviction of the spherical form of the earth, the next step might be to convey an impressive idea of its magnitude. For this purpose, let a class of young persons be conducted to an eminence, where they might have a distinct view of a landscape stretching about eight miles in every direction. Let their atten tion be particularly directed to the various objects which compose the scene before them; let them be directed to consider the vast mass of materials contained in the hills or mountains which form a portion of the view--the millions of labourers, and the number of years which it would be requisite to reduce the whole landscape to a perfect level, the number of trees and shrubs of every kind contained within the range of their view the almost innumerable millions of flowers of every hue, stalks of corn, blades of grass, mosses almost invisible to the naked eye, and vegetables of every description, which cover every portion of the landscape-the cattle, sheep, horses, dogs, and other quadrupeds, and the multitudes of birds, worms, flying and creeping insects, and microscopic animalculæ, which no man can number, comprehended within the limits of their view the number of houses and human beings in the towns, villages, and hamlets, which are scattered around, and the labours in which they are employed the mass of waters in the rivers, and in that portion of the ocean which lies before them, (if such objects be in view,) and the numerous tribes of fishes which glide through the watery element. Let them be directed to consider the time and exertions which would be requisite to travel to the most distant parts of the land scape, to go quite round it, and to cross it in forty or fifty directions, so as to attain a more intimate inspection of the multifarious scenes and objects of which it is composed. Let certain general calculations be made of the number and magnitude of such objects, of the motion of the inanimate parts of nature, of the activities of animated beings, and of the quantity of matter which appears on every hand. Having impressed upon their minds, as clearly as possible, such ideas of the magnitude and variety of the scene before them, let them be informed that the landscape they are contemplating is about 50 miles in circumference, and that its surface contains 200 square miles; but, that the whole surface of the earth contains more than 196 millions of square miles, and, consequently, is nine hundred and eighty thousand times larger than all the objects they behold around them; so that they must conceive 980,000 landscapes as large as the one before them, before they can form an adequate idea of the magnitude of the earth. To impress this idea more deeply, they may likewise be told, that, were they to remain in the station they now occupy, ten hours every day, (the time usually allotted for daily labour,) and were a landscape of similar extent to that which they behold, to pass before their view every hour, till the whole extent and scenery of the terraqueous globe were brought under their observation, it would require more than two hundred and sixty-eight years before they could survey, even in this rapid and imperfect manner, the whole superficial dimensions and variegated scenery of the globe on which we dwell. Their attention should likewise be directed to the solidity of the earth-that it is not a mere superficies, but contains within its bowels an immense and indescribable mass of matter, extending nearly 7900 or 8000 miles in every direction between the opposite portions of its circumference, amounting to more than 263 thousand millions of cubical miles. An idea of this enormous mass of materials may be communicated by such illustrations as the following:- Suppose Mount Etna, which ranks among the largest insulated mountains on the globe, and which contains around its sides 77 cities, towns, and villages, and 115,000 inhabitants, to be 120 miles in circumference around the base, about 10 miles in circumference near the top, and 2 miles in perpendicular altitude, and consider ing its figure to be nearly that of the frustrum of a cone, it will contain about 833 cubica. miles, which is only the part of the solidity of the globe, reckoning it to contain 263,858,149,120 cubical miles; so that it would require more than three hundred milliums of mountains, such as Etna, to form a mass equal to that of the terraqueous globe: and were these mountains placed side by side in a straight line, they would extend 12,100,097,574, or more than twelve thousand millions of miles; that is, more than six times the distance of Herschel, the remotest planet of our system. And were we to travel without intermission, till we reached the extremity of such a line of mountains, at the rate of 25 miles every hour, (the utmost speed which our steamcarriages have yet attained,) it would require fifty-five thousand, two hundred and fifty-one years, before the journey could be accomplished. And, were they arranged in circles, equal to the perimeter of the sun, they would go 4376 times round the circumference of that stupendous globe, and cover a great portion of its surface. Again, suppose that all the inhabitants of the earth were to be employed in removing a mass of materials equal to that of our globe; suppose all that are capable of labouring to be 200 millions, and that each person removes ten cubical yards in a day, it would require more than 1,970,956,164, or, one thousand nine hundred and seventy millions, nine hundred and fifty-six thousand, one hundred and sixty-four years, before such an operation could be completed; which is more than 337,550 times the number of years which have elapsed since the Mosaic creation. It is of some importance, that, by such (101) 12 illustrations, we endeavour to convey to the in the same direction that the land is divided minds of the young a luminous and impressive idea of the magnitude of the globe on which we dwell. For it is the only standard, or scale of magnitude, by which we are enabled to form a conception of the bulk of the sun, and some of the more magnificent globes of the solar system, and of the immensity of the universe. If we entertain imperfect and contracted conceptions of the size of our globe, we shall be led to entertain similar contracted of miles in extent that hundreds of rivers, views of the celestial orbs, and of the amplitudes of creation. No adequate conception of the magnitude of our world can be conveyed to the young, by merely telling them that it is 8000 miles in diameter, and 25,000 in circumference, and showing them its figure and the divisions on its surface by an artificial globe. For, in the first place, few of them have an accurate conception of the extent of one thousand miles, much less of twenty five thousand; and, in the next place, they are apt to fix their attention merely on the length of a line or a circle, without considering the extent of surface contained in a globe of the above dimensions; and therefore, the number of square miles comprised in the superficies of the earth, amounting to nearly 200 mil lions, should always be specified, as that which conveys the most correct idea of the amplitude of our globe-and, in the last place, unless an ample prospect be presented to their view, and their attention fixed upon its multifarious objects, while such instructions are imparting, the illustrations of the magnitude of the earth will neither be clear nor impressive. In a private apartment, where the view is confined to the walls of the room, such instructions would lose a considerable part of their effect. Having thus impressed on the understandings of the pupils clear conceptions of the figure and magnitude of the earth, its leading divisions and grand natural outlines should next be presented to view. An eighteen-inch terrestrial globe should be placed before them, on which they should be directed to mark the great divisions of land and water-that the regions inhabited by man, and other terrestrial animals, lie between two expansive masses of water more than ten thousand miles in length, and one of them nearly the same in breadth, which cover about threefourths of the surface of the globe-that the northern and southern portions of this watery mass are, for the most part, compacted into a body of solid ice; that the other portions move backwards and forwards in different directions by a kind of libratory motion, every 124 hours, producing the flux and reflux of the sea; that currents, such as the gulf stream, are found in different parts of the ocean, flowing uniformly into three principal portions or masses, the Eastern and Western continents, and the territory of New Holland, besides thousands of islands of every form and size, which diversify the surface of the occan-that lofty ranges of mountains, some of them three or four miles in perpendicular height, run in different directions through these continents, some of them hundreds and even thousands many of them above 2000 miles in length, have their rise in these elevated regions, and carry an immense body of waters into the ocean-that the ocean has been sounded with lines nearly a mile in length, when no bottom was found; that it is probable, it is several miles in depth, and that its bottom is diversified with mountains and vales like the surface of the dry land; that it contains a mass of water sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of more than a mile and a half; and that, were its caverns drained, it would require more than 20,000 years before they could be filled by all the rivers running into it at their present rate, although they pour into its abyss 13,600 cubical miles of water every yearthat the atmosphere surrounds the whole of this terraqueous mass; that by means of this atmosphere and the solar heat, a portion of the waters of the ocean is carried up to the region of the clouds in the form of vapour, and condensed into rain to supply the sources of the rivers, and to water and fertilize the earth-and that, by these and similar arrangements of Infinite Wisdom, the lives and comforts of myriads of animated beings throughout the regions of the earth, air, and ocean, are preserved and perpetuated. Such general views of the grand features of the globe, when occasionally enlivened with particular details of what is curious and novel to the young, cannot but arrest their attention, and excite their curiosity to acquire more minute information on the subject; while, at the same time, they have a tendency to inspire them with sublime and reverential ideas of that Almighty Being who, "laid the foundations of the earth, who causeth the vapours to ascend, who measureth the ocean in the hollow of his hand, who weigheth the mountains in scales, and taketh up the isles as a very little thing." After describing such general views, the attention may be directed to various other objects connected with the physical constitution of the globe, such as rocks and insulated mountains, promontories, isthmuses, caverns, icebergs, forests, mines, and deserts-volcanic mountains, and islands that have been raised from the bottom of the ocean by the force of subterraneous agents lakes, mediterranean seas, fountains, springs, |